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Main Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience

Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience

E. Bruce Goldstein

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Goldstein  Cognitive Psychology  Cognitive Psychology E. Bruce Goldstein CONNECTING MIND, RESEARCH, AND EVERYDAY EXPERIENCE 5E  CONNECTING MIND, RESEARCH, AND EVERYDAY EXPERIENCE  5E  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  9781337408271_CVR_hr.indd 1  SE/Goldstein - Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5e   ISBN-13: 978-1-337-40827-1 Designer: D Davidson Printer: Quad   Binding: Casebound   Trim: 9" x 10.875"   CMYK  ©2019  4/6/18 10:50 AM  Fit your coursework into your hectic life. Make the most of your time by learning your way. Access the resources you need to succeed wherever, whenever. Study with digital flashcards, listen to audio textbooks, and take quizzes. Review your current course grade and compare your progress with your peers. Get the free MindTap Mobile App and learn wherever you are.  Break Limitations. Create your own potential, and be unstoppable with MindTap.  MINDTAP. POWERED BY YOU. cengage.com/mindtap Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  9781337408271_END_hr_002.indd 1  3/27/18 2:09 PM  COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience ❘ 5E  E. Bruce Goldstein University of Pittsburgh University of Arizona  Australia  ●  Brazil  ●  Mexico  ●  Singapore  ●  United Kingdom  ●  United States  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 1  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, Fifth Edition E. Bruce Goldstein Product Director: Marta Lee-Perriard Product Team Manager: Star Burruto  © 2019, 2015 Cengage Learning, Inc. Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced or distributed i; n any form or by any means, except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.  Product Manager: Erin Schnair  For product information and technology assistance, contact us at  Content Developer: Linda Man  Cengage Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706.  Product Assistant: Leah Jenson  For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions.  Digital Content Specialist: Allison Marion  Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com.  Marketing Manager: Heather Thompson Content Project Manager: Ruth Sakata Corley Production and Composition: MPS Limited Intellectual Property Analyst: Deanna Ettinger  Library of Congress Control Number: 2017951368 Student Edition: ISBN: 978-1-337-40827-1 Loose-leaf Edition:  Intellectual Property Project Manager: Carly Belcher  ISBN: 978-1-337-61628-7  Illustrator: Jan Troutt  Cengage  Art Director: Vernon Boes  Boston, MA 02210  20 Channel Center Street  Text and Cover Designer: Cheryl Carrington Cover Image: E. Bruce Goldstein  USA Cengage is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in more than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representative at www.cengage.com. Cengage products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. To learn more about Cengage platforms and services, visit www.cengage.com.  Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01   Print Year: 2018  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 2  4/18/18 6:55 PM  To Barbara  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 3  4/18/18 6:55 PM  iv  Contents  About the Author E. BRUCE GOLDSTEIN is Associate Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of Pittsburgh and Adjunct Professor of Psychology at the University of Arizona. He received the Chancellor's Distinguished Teaching Award from the University of Pittsburgh for his classroom teaching and textbook writing. After receiving his bachelor's degree in chemical engineering from Tufts University, he had a revelation that he wanted to go to graduate school in psychology, rather than engineering, and so received his PhD in psychology, specializing in visual physiology, from Brown University. He continued his research in vision as a post-doctoral fellow in the Biology Department at Harvard University and then joined the faculty at the University of Pittsburgh. He continued his research at Pitt, publishing papers on retinal and cortical physiology, visual attention, and the perception of pictures, before focusing exclusively on teaching (Sensation & Perception, Cognitive Psychology, Psychology of Art, Introductory Psychology) and writing textbooks. He is the author of Sensation and Perception, 10th edition (Cengage, 2017), and edited the Blackwell Handbook of Perception (Blackwell, 2001) and the two-volume Sage Encyclopedia of Perception (Sage, 2010). In 2016, he won "The Flame Challenge" competition, sponsored by the Alan Alda Center for Communicating Science, for his essay, written for 11-year-olds, on What Is Sound?  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 4  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Brief Contents CHAPTER 1  Introduction to Cognitive Psychology  3  CHAPTER 2  Cognitive Neuroscience  25  CHAPTER 3  59  Perception CHAPTER 4  93  Attention CHAPTER 5  Short-Term and Working Memory  129  CHAPTER 6  Long-Term Memory: Structure  161  CHAPTER 7  LTM: Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation  191  CHAPTER 8  Everyday Memory and Memory Errors  225  CHAPTER 9  Conceptual Knowledge  263  CHAPTER 10  297  Visual Imagery CHAPTER 11  321  Language CHAPTER 12  Problem Solving & Creativity  355  CHAPTER 13  Judgment, Decisions, and Reasoning  393  GLOSSARY  428 445 475 483  REFERENCES NAME INDEX SUBJECT INDEX  v Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 5  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 6  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents CHAPTER 1  Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology: Studying the Mind  3  5  What Is the Mind? 5 Studying the Mind: Early Work in Cognitive Psychology  6  Abandoning the Study of the Mind 10 Watson Founds Behaviorism 10 Skinner's Operant Conditioning 11 Setting the Stage for the Reemergence of the Mind in Psychology  The Rebirth of the Study of the Mind  13  Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts 13 Introduction of the Digital Computer 14 Conferences on Artificial Intelligence and Information Theory The Cognitive "Revolution" Took a While 15  The Evolution of Cognitive Psychology  11  15  16  What Neisser Wrote 16 Studying Higher Mental Processes 17 Studying the Physiology of Cognition 18 New Perspectives on Behavior 18  Something to Consider 19 Learning from This Book TEST YOUR SELF 1.1  19 20  Chapter Summary 21 Think About It 22 Key Terms 22 CogLab Experiments 22 CHAPTER 2  Cognitive Neuroscience Levels of Analysis 26 Neurons: Basic Principles  25  27  Early Conceptions of Neurons 27 The Signals That Travel in Neurons 29 METHOD  Recording from a Neuron  Representation by Neural Firing  30  32  The Story of Neural Representation and Cognition: A Preview Feature Detectors 33  32  vii Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 7  4/18/18 6:55 PM  viii  Contents Neurons That Respond to Complex Stimuli Sensory Coding 36 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 2 . 1 38  Localized Representation  35  38  Localization Determined by Neuropsychology METHOD  38  Demonstrating a Double Dissociation  Localization Determined by Recording from Neurons Localization Demonstrated by Brain Imaging 40 METHOD  Brain Imaging  41  Distributed Representation  43  Looking at a Face 43 Remembering 44 Producing and Understanding Language  Neural Networks  40  40  44  45  Structural Connectivity 45 Functional Connectivity 46 METHOD  Resting-State Functional Connectivity  46  The Dynamics of Cognition 49 The Default Mode Network 50  Something to Consider: Technology Determines the Questions We Can Ask 52 TEST YOUR SELF 2.2  55  Chapter Summary 56 Think About It 56 Key Terms 57 CogLab Experiment 57 CHAPTER 3  Perception  59  The Nature of Perception  60  Some Basic Characteristics of Perception 60 A Human Perceives Objects and a Scene 61 D E M O N S T R AT I O N  Perceptual Puzzles in a Scene  A Computer-Vision System Perceives Objects and a Scene  62  63  Why Is It So Difficult to Design a Perceiving Machine? The Stimulus on the Receptors Is Ambiguous 65 Objects Can Be Hidden or Blurred 65 Objects Look Different from Different Viewpoints Scenes Contain High-Level Information 67  Information for Human Perception Perceiving Objects 67 Hearing Words in a Sentence  65  66  67  68  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 8  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents   ix TEST YOUR SELF 3.1  70  Conceptions of Object Perception  70  Helmholtz's Theory of Unconscious Inference 70 The Gestalt Principles of Organization 71 Taking Regularities of the Environment into Account D E M O N S T R AT I O N  74  Visualizing Scenes and Objects  Bayesian Inference 76 Comparing the Four Approaches T E S T Y O U R S E L F 3 . 2 78  75  77  Neurons and Knowledge About the Environment Neurons That Respond to Horizontals and Verticals Experience-Dependent Plasticity 79  Perception and Action: Behavior Movement Facilitates Perception 80 The Interaction of Perception and Action  81  82  82  Brain Ablation  82  Perception and Action Streams Mirror Neurons 85  83  METHOD  78  80  Perception and Action: Physiology What and Where Streams  78  Something to Consider: Knowledge, Inference, and Prediction 87 TEST YOUR SELF 3.3  88  Chapter Summary 88 Think About It 89 Key Terms 90 CogLab Experiment 91 CHAPTER 4  Attention  93  Attention as Information Processing  95  Broadbent's Filter Model of Attention 95 Modifying Broadbent's Model: More Early Selection Models A Late Selection Model 98  Processing Capacity and Perceptual Load D E M O N S T R AT I O N  The Stroop Effect  TEST YOUR SELF 4.1  96  99  100  101  Directing Attention by Scanning a Scene  102  Scanning a Scene With Eye Movements 102 Scanning Based on Stimulus Salience 103 Scanning Based on Cognitive Factors 104 Scanning Based on Task Demands 104  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 9  4/18/18 6:55 PM  x  Contents  Outcomes of Attention  105  Attention Improves Our Ability to Respond to a Location METHOD  Precueing  105  106  Attention Improves Our Ability to Respond to Objects Attention Affects Perception 107 Attention Affects Physiological Responding 107 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 4 . 2 109  106  Divided Attention: Can We Attend to More Than One Thing at a Time? 110 Divided Attention Can Be Achieved With Practice: Automatic Processing 110 Divided Attention Becomes More Difficult When Tasks Are Harder 111  Distractions  112  Distractions by Cell Phones while Driving Distractions by the Internet 113 METHOD  Experience Sampling  112  113  Distraction Caused by Mind Wandering  114  What Happens When We Don't Attend?  115  Inattentional Blindness 116 Inattentional Deafness 116 Change Detection 117 D E M O N S T R AT I O N  Change Detection  What About Everyday Experience?  117  118  Attention and Experiencing a Coherent World Feature Integration Theory 119 Evidence for Feature Integration Theory D E M O N S T R AT I O N  120  Searching for Conjunctions  121  Something to Consider: Attentional Networks TEST YOUR SELF 4.3  119  122  124  Chapter Summary 124 Think About It 125 Key Terms 126 CogLab Experiment 127 CHAPTER 5  Short-Term and Working Memory The Modal Model of Memory Sensory Memory 134  129  132  The Sparkler's Trail and the Projector's Shutter 134 Sperling's Experiment: Measuring the Capacity and Duration of the Sensory Store 135  Short-Term Memory: Storage METHOD  Recall  137  138  What Is the Duration of Short-Term Memory?  138  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 10  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents   xi  How Many Items Can Be Held in Short-Term Memory? Digit Span 139 Change Detection 139 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Remembering Letters  138  D E M O N S T R AT I O N METHOD  141  How Much Information Can Be Held in Short-Term Memory? T E S T Y O U R S E L F 5 . 1 142  Working Memory: Manipulating Information D E M O N S T R AT I O N  Numbers  141  143  Reading Text and Remembering  144  The Phonological Loop D E M O N S T R AT I O N  145 Articulatory Suppression  The Visuospatial Sketch Pad D E M O N S T R AT I O N D E M O N S T R AT I O N D E M O N S T R AT I O N  146  146  Comparing Objects 146 Recalling Visual Patterns 147 Holding a Spatial Stimulus in the Mind  The Central Executive 148 An Added Component: The Episodic Buffer  Working Memory and the Brain  148  149  150  The Effect of Damage to the Prefrontal Cortex 150 Prefrontal Neurons That Hold Information 152 The Neural Dynamics of Working Memory 153  Something to Consider: Why is More Working Memory Better? 154 METHOD  Event-Related Potential  TEST YOUR SELF 5.2  156  157  Chapter Summary 158 Think About It 159 Key Terms 159 CogLab Experiment 159 CHAPTER 6  Long-Term Memory: Structure  161  Comparing Short-Term and Long-Term Memory Processes 162 Serial Position Curve 164 Coding in Short-Term and Long-Term Memory  166  Measuring Recognition Memory 168 D E M O N S T R AT I O N Reading a Passage 168 METHOD  Comparing Coding in Short-Term and Long-Term Memory Locating Memory in the Brain 170 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 6 . 1 171  Episodic and Semantic Memory  169  172  Distinctions Between Episodic and Semantic Memory  172  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 11  4/18/18 6:55 PM  xii  Contents Interactions Between Episodic and Semantic Memory 174 What Happens to Episodic and Semantic Memories as Time Passes? Remember/Know Procedure  METHOD  Back to the Future  177 179  TEST YOUR SELF 6.2  Procedural Memory, Priming, and Conditioning Procedural Memory  179  180  D E M O N S T R AT I O N  Priming  175  176  Mirror Drawing  181  182  Avoiding Explicit Remembering in a Priming Experiment 183  METHOD  Classical Conditioning  184  Something to Consider: Memory Loss in the Movies TEST YOUR SELF 6.3  185  187  Chapter Summary 188 Think About It 189 Key Terms 189 CogLab Experiment 189 CHAPTER 7  LTM: Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation  191  Encoding: Getting Information into Long-Term Memory 193 Levels of Processing Theory 193 Forming Visual Images 194 Linking Words to Yourself 194 Generating Information 194 Organizing Information 195 D E M O N S T R AT I O N  Remembering a List  Relating Words to Survival Value Retrieval Practice 197 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 7 . 1 199  Effective Studying  195  197  199  Elaborate 199 Generate and Test 200 Organize 200 Take Breaks 200 Avoid "Illusions of Learning" 200 Be An "Active" Note-Taker 201  Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory Retrieval Cues METHOD  202  202  Cued Recall  203  Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval  204  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 12  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents   xiii TEST YOUR SELF 7.2  207  Consolidation: Establishing Memories  208  Synaptic Consolidation: Experience Causes Changes at the Synapse Systems Consolidation: The Hippocampus and the Cortex 210 METHOD  Multivoxel Pattern Analysis (MVPA)  Consolidation and Sleep: Enhancing Memory  208  213  214  Reconsolidation: The Dynamics of Memory  216  Reconsolidation: A Famous Rat Experiment 216 Reconsolidation in Humans 218 A Practical Outcome of Reconsolidation Research 219  Something to Consider: Alternative Explanations in Cognitive Psychology 220 TEST YOUR SELF 7.3  220  Chapter Summary 221 Think About It 222 Key Terms 222 CogLab Experiment 222 CHAPTER 8  Everyday Memory and Memory Errors  225  The Journey So Far 226 Autobiographical Memory: What Has Happened in My Life 227 The Multidimensional Nature of Autobiographical Memory Memory Over the Life Span 228  Memory for "Exceptional" Events  227  231  Memory and Emotion 231 Flashbulb Memories 232 METHOD  Repeated Recall  TEST YOUR SELF 8.1  233  236  The Constructive Nature of Memory Source Monitoring Errors 236 The Illusory Truth Effect 238 How Real-World Knowledge Affects Memory D E M O N S T R AT I O N D E M O N S T R AT I O N  238  Reading Sentences 240 Memory for a List 242  What Is It Like to Have "Exceptional" Memory? T E S T Y O U R S E L F 8 . 2 243  The Misinformation Effect METHOD  236  242  244  Presenting Misleading Postevent Information  244  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 13  4/18/18 6:55 PM  xiv  Contents  Creating Memories for Events in People's Lives Creating Childhood Memories 246 Legal Implications of False Memory Research  246  247  Why Do People Make Errors in Eyewitness Testimony? Errors of Eyewitness Identification 248 Errors Associated with Perception and Attention 249 Misidentifications Due to Familiarity 250 Errors Due to Suggestion 251 What Is Being Done to Improve Eyewitness Testimony? Eliciting False Confessions 254  248  252  Something to Consider: Music- and Odor-Elicited Autobiographical Memories 255 TEST YOUR SELF 8.3 D E M O N S T R AT I O N  257  Reading Sentences (Continued)  258  Chapter Summary 258 Think About It 259 Key Terms 260 CogLab Experiment 260 CHAPTER 9  Conceptual Knowledge  263  Basic Properties of Concepts and Categories 266 How Are Objects Placed into Categories? 266 Why Definitions Don't Work for Categories 267 The Prototype Approach: Finding the Average Case  268  Family Resemblance 269 Sentence Verification Technique 270  D E M O N S T R AT I O N METHOD  The Exemplar Approach: Thinking About Examples 272 Which Approach Works Better: Prototypes or Exemplars? 272  Is There a Psychologically "Basic" Level of Categories? Rosch's Approach: What's Special About Basic Level Categories? D E M O N S T R AT I O N D E M O N S T R AT I O N  Listing Common Features Naming Things 274  How Knowledge Can Affect Categorization T E S T Y O U R S E L F 9 . 1 275  273  273  274  275  Network Models of Categorization 276 Representing Relationships Among Categories: Semantic Networks 276 Introduction to Semantic Networks: Collins and Quillian's Hierarchical Model 276  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 14  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents   xv METHOD  Lexical Decision Task  279  Criticism of the Collins and Quillian Model  The Connectionist Approach  279  280  What Is a Connectionist Model? 280 How Are Concepts Represented in a Connectionist Network? T E S T Y O U R S E L F 9 . 2 285  282  How Concepts Are Represented in the Brain 285 Four Proposals About How Concepts Are Represented in the Brain 285 The Sensory-Functional Hypothesis 286 The Multiple-Factor Approach 286 The Semantic Category Approach 288 The Embodied Approach 290 Summarizing the Approaches 291  Something to Consider: The Hub and Spoke Model METHOD  Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)  TEST YOUR SELF 9.3  291  292  293  Chapter Summary 293 Think About It 294 Key Terms 295 CogLab Experiment 295 CHAPTER 10  Visual Imagery  297  Imagery in the History of Psychology Early Ideas About Imagery 299 Imagery and the Cognitive Revolution METHOD  299  299  Paired-Associate Learning  299  Imagery and Perception: Do They Share the Same Mechanisms? 300 Kosslyn's Mental Scanning Experiments M E T H O D / D E M O N S T R AT I O N  300  Mental Scanning  The Imagery Debate: Is Imagery Spatial or Propositional? Comparing Imagery and Perception 303 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 1 0 . 1 305  Imagery and the Brain  302  305  Imagery Neurons in the Human Brain METHOD  301  305  Recording from Single Neurons in Humans  Brain Imaging 306 Multivoxel Pattern Analysis  305  308  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 15  4/18/18 6:55 PM  xvi  Contents Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 308 Neuropsychological Case Studies 310 Conclusions from the Imagery Debate 312  Using Imagery to Improve Memory Placing Images at Locations D E M O N S T R AT I O N  312  313  Method of Loci  Associating Images with Words  313  314  Something to Consider: Individual Differences in Visual Imagery 314 TEST YOUR SELF 10.2  317  Chapter Summary 317 Think About It 318 Key Terms 318 CogLab Experiment 318 CHAPTER 11  Language  321  What is Language?  322  The Creativity of Human Language 322 The Universal Need to Communicate with Language Studying Language 323  323  Understanding Words: A Few Complications  325  Not All Words Are Created Equal: Differences in Frequency 325 The Pronunciation of Words Is Variable 325 There Are No Silences Between Words in Normal Conversation 326  Understanding Ambiguous Words Accessing Multiple Meanings METHOD  Lexical Priming  327  327 327  Frequency Influences Which Meanings Are Activated T E S T Y O U R S E L F 1 1 . 1 330  Understanding Sentences  328  331  Parsing: Making Sense of Sentences 331 The Garden Path Model of Parsing 332 The Constraint-Based Approach to Parsing Prediction, Prediction, Prediction… 336 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 1 1 . 2 337  Understanding Text and Stories  332  337  Making Inferences 337 Situation Models 339  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 16  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents   xvii  Having Conversations  342  The Given­–New Contract 342 Common Ground: Taking the Other Person into Account Establishing Common Ground 343 Syntactic Coordination 345 METHOD  Syntactic Priming  343  345  Something to Consider: Music and Language  347  Music and Language: Similarities and Differences 347 Expectations in Music and Language 348 Do Music and Language Overlap in the Brain? 349 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 1 1 . 3 350  Chapter Summary 351 Think About It 352 Key Terms 353 CogLab Experiment 353 CHAPTER 12  Problem Solving & Creativity  355  What Is a Problem? 356 The Gestalt Approach 356 Representing a Problem in the Mind The Idea of Insight 357 D E M O N S T R AT I O N  Two Insight Problems  Functional Fixedness and Mental Set D E M O N S T R AT I O N  356 358  359  The Candle Problem  The Information-Processing Approach  359  362  Newell and Simon's Approach 362 D E M O N S T R AT I O N  The Tower of Hanoi Problem  The Importance of How a Problem Is Stated  363  366  The Mutilated Checkerboard Problem Think-Aloud Protocol 368  D E M O N S T R AT I O N METHOD  TEST YOUR SELF 12.1  369  Using Analogies to Solve Problems Analogical Transfer D E M O N S T R AT I O N  366  369  369 Duncker's Radiation Problem  370  Analogical Encoding 372 Analogy in the Real World 373 METHOD  In Vivo Problem-Solving Research  How Experts Solve Problems  373  374  Differences Between How Experts and Novices Solve Problems Expertise Is Only an Advantage in the Expert's Specialty 376  374  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 17  4/18/18 6:55 PM  xviii  Contents  Creative Problem Solving  376  What Is Creativity? 377 Practical Creativity 377 Generating Ideas 378 D E M O N S T R AT I O N  Creating an Object  Creativity and the Brain  381  Opening the Mind to Think "Outside the Box" METHOD  380  382  Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation  382  Brain "Preparation" for Insight and Analytical Problem Solving Networks Associated with Creativity 383  382  Something to Consider: Wired to Create: Things Creative People Do Differently 386 Daydreaming 386 Solitude 387 Mindfulness 388 TEST YOUR SELF 12.2  389  Chapter Summary 390 Think About It 391 Key Terms 391 CHAPTER 13  Judgment, Decisions, and Reasoning  393  Inductive Reasoning: Making Judgments from Observations 394 The Availability Heuristic D E M O N S T R AT I O N  396  Which Is More Prevalent?  The Representativeness Heuristic D E M O N S T R AT I O N D E M O N S T R AT I O N D E M O N S T R AT I O N  396  398  Judging Occupations 398 Description of a Person 399 Male and Female Births 400  Attitudes Can Affect Judgment 400 Evaluating False Evidence 402 T E S T Y O U R S E L F 1 3 . 1 404  Deductive Reasoning: Syllogisms and Logic 404 Categorical Syllogisms 404 Mental Models of Deductive Reasoning 407 Conditional Syllogisms 409 Conditional Reasoning: The Wason Four-Card Problem D E M O N S T R AT I O N  410  The Wason Four-Card Problem  TEST YOUR SELF 13.2  411  413  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 18  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Contents   xix  Decision Making: Choosing Among Alternatives  413  The Utility Approach to Decisions 413 How Emotions Affect Decisions 416 Decisions Can Depend on the Context Within Which They Are Made Decisions Can Depend on How Choices Are Presented 418 D E M O N S T R AT I O N  What Would You Do?  417  419  Neuroeconomics: The Neural Basis of Decision Making  420  Something to Consider: The Dual Systems Approach to Thinking 422 Postscript: Donders Returns 424 TEST YOUR SELF 13.3  424  Chapter Summary 425 Think About It 426 Key Terms 427 CogLab Experiment 427 GLOSSARY REFERENCES NAME INDEX SUBJECT INDEX  428 445 475 483  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 19  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 20  4/18/18 6:55 PM  CogLab Experiments Numbers in parentheses refer to the experiment number in CogLab. The first experiments in each chapter are "Primary Experiments" that are directly or closely related to discussion in the text. Asterisks (*) indicate "Related Experiments." These experiments are relevant to the topic of the chapter, but are not directly related to the discussion in the text. Chapter 1 Simple Detection (2) A simple reaction time task that measures how fast you react to the appearance of a dot. Chapter 2 Brain Asymmetry (15)* How speed of processing for shapes and words may be different in the left and right hemispheres. Chapter 3 Signal Detection (1)* Collect data that demonstrate the principle behind the theory of signal detection, which explains the processes behind detecting hard-to-detect stimuli. Apparent Motion (3) Determining how fast two dots have to be flashed, one after another, to achieve an illusion of movement. Garner Interference: Integral Dimensions (4)* Making light-dark judgments for a square. A one-dimensional task. Garner Interference: Separable Dimensions (5)* Making light-dark judgments for squares of different sizes. An additional dimension is added. Müller-Lyer Illusion (6)* Measure the size of a visual illusion. Blind Spot (14)* Map the blind spot in your visual field that is caused by the fact that there are no receptors where the optic nerve leaves the eye. Metacontrast Masking (16)* How presentation of a masking stimulus can impair perception of another stimulus. Categorical Perception: Discrimination (39)* Demonstration of categorical perception based on the ability to discriminate between sounds. Categorical Perception: Identification (40)* Demonstration of categorical perception based on the identification of different sound categories. Statistical Learning (47) How learning can occur in response to exposure to sequences of forms. Chapter 4 Visual Search (7) Feature search experiment. Searching for a green circle among blue lines, with different numbers of blue lines.  Attentional Blink (8)* Testing your ability to detect stimuli that are presented in rapid succession. Change Detection (9) A task involving detecting changes in alternating scenes. Inhibition of Return (10) Inhibition of return (10) How presentation of a target away from fixation can cause a slowing of responding. Simon Effect (11)* How speed and accuracy of responding are affected by the location of the response to a stimulus. Spatial Cueing (12) How cueing attention affects reaction time to the cued area. Evidence for the spotlight model of attention. Stroop Effect (13) How reaction time to naming font colors is affected by the presence of conflicting information from words. Von Restorff Effect (32)* How the distinctiveness of a stimulus can influence memory. Chapter 5 Modality Effect (17)* How memory for the last one or two items in a list depends on whether the list is heard or read. Partial Report (18) The partial report condition of Sperling's iconic memory experiment. Brown-Peterson Task (20) How memory for trigrams fades. Position Error (21)* Memory errors when trying to remember the order of a series of letters. Sternberg Search (22)* A method to determine how information is retrieved from short-term memory. Irrelevant Speech Effect (22) How recall for items on a list is affected by the presence of irrelevant speech. Memory Span (24) Measuring memory span for numbers, letters, and words. Operation Span (25) Measuring the operation-word span, a measure of working memory. Phonological Similarity Effect (26) How recall for items on a list is affected by how similar the items sound. Word Length Effect (27) Measurement of the word length effect. Von Restorff Effect (32)* How the distinctiveness of a stimulus can influence memory. Neighborhood Size Effect (42)* How recall in a shortterm memory task is affected by the size of a word's "neighborhood" (how many words can be created by changing a letter or phoneme).  xxi Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 21  4/18/18 6:55 PM  xxii  CogLab Experiments Chapter 6 Suffix Effect (19)* How adding an irrelevant item to the end of a list affects recall for the final items on a list in a serial position experiment. Serial Position (31) How memory for a list depends on an item's position on the list. Remember/Know (36) Distinguishing between remembered items in which there is memory for learning the item and items that just seem familiar. Implicit Learning (45) How we can learn something without being aware of the learning. Chapter 7 Encoding Specificity (28) How memory is affected by conditions at both encoding and retrieval, and the relation between them. Levels of Processing (29) How memory is influenced by depth of processing. Von Restorff Effect (32)* How the distinctiveness of a stimulus can influence memory. Production Effect (30)* How memory depends on whether words are read out loud or silently. Chapter 8 False Memory (33) How memory for words on a list sometimes occurs for words that were not presented. Forgot it All Along Effect (34) How it is possible to remember something and also have the experience of having previously forgotten it Memory Judgment (35) A test of how accurate people are at predicting their memory performance. Chapter 9 Lexical Decision (41) Demonstration of the lexical decision task, which has been used to provide evidence for the concept of spreading activation. Absolute Identification (44)* Remembering levels that have been associated with a stimulus. Prototypes (46) A method for studying the effect of concepts on responding.  Chapter 10 Link Word (37) A demonstration of how imagery can be used to help learn foreign vocabulary. Mental Rotation (38) How a stimulus can be rotated in the mind to determine whether its shape matches another stimulus. Chapter 11 Categorical Perception: Identification (40)* Demonstration of categorical perception based on the identification of different sound categories. Categorical Perception: Discrimination (39)* Demonstration of categorical perception based on the ability to discriminate between sounds. Lexical Decision (41) Demonstration of the lexical decision task. Neighborhood Size Effect (42)* How recall in a shortterm memory task is affected by the size of a word's "neighborhood" (how many words can be created by changing a letter or phoneme). Word Superiority (43) How speed of identifying a letter compares when the letter is isolated or in a word. Chapter 12 None Chapter 13 Monty Hall (49)* A simulation of the Monty Hall three-door problem, which involves an understanding of probability. Decision Making (48) An experiment that demonstrates how decisions can be affected by the context within which the decision is made. Risky Decisions (50) How decision making is influenced by framing effects. Typical Reasoning (51) How the representativeness heuristic can lead to errors of judgment. Wason Selection Task (52) Two versions of the Wason four-card problem.  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 22  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Demonstrations Chapter 3 Perceptual Puzzles in a Scene Visualizing Scenes and Objects  62 75  Chapter 4 The Stroop Effect Change Detection Searching for Conjunctions  100 117 121  Chapter 5 Digit Span Remembering Letters Reading Text and Remembering Numbers Articulatory Suppression Comparing Objects Recalling Visual Patterns Holding a Spatial Stimulus in the Mind  139 141 144 146 146 147 148  Chapter 6 Reading a Passage Mirror Drawing  168 181  Chapter 7 Remembering a List  195  Chapter 8 Reading Sentences Memory for a List Reading Sentences  240 242 258  Chapter 9 Family Resemblance Listing Common Features Naming Things  269 274 274  Chapter 10 Mental Scanning Method of Loci  301 313  Chapter 12 Two Insight Problems The Candle Problem The Tower of Hanoi Problem The Mutilated Checkerboard Problem Duncker's Radiation Problem Creating an Object  358 359 363 366 370 380  Chapter 13 Which Is More Prevalent? Judging Occupations Description of a Person Male and Female Births The Wason Four-Card Problem What Would You Do?  396 398 399 400 411 419  xxiii Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 23  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Methods Chapter 2 Recording from a Neuron Demonstrating a Double Dissociation Brain Imaging Resting-State Functional Connectivity  30 40 41 46  Chapter 3 Brain Ablation  82  Chapter 8 Repeated Recall Presenting Misleading Postevent Information  233 244  Chapter 9 Sentence Verification Technique Lexical Decision Task Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)  270 279 292  Chapter 4 Precueing Experience Sampling  106 113  Chapter 5 Recall Change Detection Event-Related Potential  Chapter 10 Paired-Associate Learning Mental Scanning Recording from Single Neurons in Humans  299 301 305  138 139 156  Chapter 11 Lexical Priming Syntactic Priming  327 345  168 176  Chapter 12 Think-Aloud Protocol In Vivo Problem-Solving Research Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation  368 373 382  Chapter 6 Measuring Recognition Memory Remember/Know Procedure Avoiding Explicit Remembering in a Priming Experiment Chapter 7 Cued Recall Multivoxel Pattern Analysis (MVPA)  183 203 213  xxiv Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 24  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Preface to Instructors The Evolution of a Cognitive Psychology Textbook This edition is the culmination of a process that began in 2002, when I decided to write the first edition of this book. From a survey of more than 500 instructors and my conversations with colleagues, it became apparent that many teachers were looking for a text that not only covers the field of cognitive psychology but is also accessible to students. From my teaching of cognitive psychology, it also became apparent that many students perceive cognitive psychology as being too abstract and theoretical, and not connected to everyday experience. With this information in hand, I set out to write a book that would tell the story of cognitive psychology in a concrete way that would help students appreciate the connections between empirical research, the principles of cognitive psychology, and everyday experience. I did a number of things to achieve this result. I started by including numerous real-life examples in each chapter, and neuropsychological case studies where appropriate. To provide students with firsthand experience with the phenomena of cognitive psychology, I included more than 40 Demonstrations—easy-to-do mini-experiments that were contained within the narrative of the text—as well as 20 additional suggestions of things to try, throughout the chapters. The Demonstrations in this edition are listed on page xxi. One thing I avoided was simply presenting the results of experiments. Instead, whenever possible, I described how experiments were designed, and what participants were doing, so students would understand how results were obtained. In addition, most of these descriptions were supported by illustrations such as pictures of stimuli, diagrams of the experimental design, or graphs of the results. Students also received access to more than 45 online CogLab experiments that they could run themselves and could then compare their data to the class average and to the results of the original experiments from the literature. The first edition (2005) therefore combined many elements designed to achieve the goal of covering the basic principles of cognitive psychology in a way that students would find interesting and easy to understand. My goal was for students to come away feeling excited about the field of cognitive psychology. The acceptance of the first edition was gratifying, but one thing I've learned from years of teaching and textbook writing is that there are always explanations that can be clarified, new pedagogical techniques to try, and new research and ideas to describe. With this in mind as I began preparing the second edition (2008), I elicited feedback from students in my classes and received more than 1,500 written responses indicating areas in the first edition that could be improved. In addition, I also received feedback from instructors who had used the first edition. This feedback was the starting point for the second edition, and I repeated this process of eliciting student and instructor feedback for the third and fourth editions, as well. Thus, in addition to updating the science, I revised many sections that students and instructors had flagged as needing clarification.  Retained Features All of the features described above were well received by students and instructors, and so they are continued in this new fifth edition. Additional pedagogical features that have been retained from previous editions include Test Yourself sections, which help students review the material, and end-of-chapter Think About It questions, which ask students to consider questions that go beyond the material.  xxv Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 25  4/18/18 6:55 PM  xxvi  Preface to Instructors Methods sections, which were introduced in the second edition, highlight the ingenious methods cognitive psychologists have devised to study the mind. Over two dozen Methods sections, which are integrated into the text, describe methods such as brain imaging, the lexical decision task, and think-aloud protocols. This not only highlights the importance of the method but makes it easier to return to its description when it is referred to later in the text. See page xxiv for a list of Methods. The end-of-chapter Something to Consider sections describe cutting-edge research, important principles, or applied research. A few examples of topics covered in this section are Technology Determines What Questions We Can Ask (Chapter 2); Autobiographical Memories Determined by Odors and Music (Chapter 8); and The Dual Systems Approach to Thinking (Chapter 13). Chapter Summaries provide succinct outlines of the chapters, without serving as a substitute for reading the chapters.  What Is New in the Fifth Edition As with previous editions of this book, this edition features updates to material throughout, and in a few cases chapters have been rewritten or reorganized to improve clarity and pedagogy. One indication of the updating of this edition is the inclusion of 96 new boldfaced terms in the text, which also appear in the Glossary. Following is a list that highlights a few of the new or updated topics in this edition. Italicized items are new section headings. CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology ➤➤  What is consciousness? fMRI study of a comatose person.  ➤➤  Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts  ➤➤  The Evolution of Cognitive Psychology  CHAPTER 2 Cognitive Neuroscience ➤➤  Structural Connectivity  ➤➤  Functional Connectivity  ➤➤  Method: Resting State Functional Connectivity  ➤➤  The Default Mode Network  ➤➤  The Dynamics of Cognition  ➤➤  Technology Determines What Questions We Can Ask  CHAPTER 3 Perception ➤➤  Knowledge, Inference, and Prediction.  CHAPTER 4 Attention ➤➤  Method: Experience Sampling  ➤➤  Distraction Caused by Mind Wandering  ➤➤  Prediction controlling eye movements  ➤➤  Attentional Networks  ➤➤  Effective connectivity  CHAPTER 5 Short-Term and Working Memory ➤➤  Why Is More Working Memory Better?  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 26  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Preface to Instructors   xxvii CHAPTER 6 Long-Term Memory: Structure ➤➤ Interactions Between Episodic and Semantic Memory ➤➤ Loss of Semantic Memory Can Affect Episodic Memories ➤➤ Back to the Future (Episodic memory and imagining the future, updated) ➤➤ Procedural Memory and Attention ➤➤ A Connection Between Procedural Memory and Semantic Memory  CHAPTER 7 Long-Term Memory: Encoding and Retrieval ➤➤ The involvement of hippocampus in remote memory—fMRI evidence. ➤➤ Alternative Explanations in Cognitive Psychology  CHAPTER 8 Everyday Memory and Memory Errors ➤➤ Music and Odor-Elicited Autobiographical Memories  CHAPTER 10 Visual Imagery ➤➤ Individual Differences in Imagery ➤➤ Contrasting object imagery and spatial imagery  CHAPTER 11 Language ➤➤ Major revision: 25 references deleted; 30 new references added; 11 figures replaced  by 8 new figures; 17 new key terms  ➤➤ Updated: Garden path sentences; multiple meanings of words; common ground in  conversation.  ➤➤ Language and Music  CHAPTER 12 Problem Solving and Creativity ➤➤ Brain "Preparation" for Insight and Analytical Problem Solutions ➤➤ Opening the Mind to Think "Outside the Box" ➤➤ Networks Associated With Creativity ➤➤ Wired to Create: Things Creative People Do Differently ➤➤ Method: Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation  CHAPTER 13 Judgment, Decisions, and Reasoning ➤➤ Poor decision making in the NBA draft. ➤➤ Evaluating false evidence, linking to idea of fake news ➤➤ Illusory truth, backfire effect ➤➤ Neuroeconomics, updated  Ancillaries to Support Your Teaching Instructor Ancillaries Online Instructor's Manual: The manual includes key terms, a detailed chapter outline, lesson plans, discussion topics, student activities, video links, and an expanded test bank. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 27  4/18/18 6:55 PM  xxviii  Preface to Instructors Online PowerPoints: Helping you make your lectures more engaging while effectively reaching your visually oriented students, these handy Microsoft PowerPoint® slides outline the chapters of the main text in a classroom-ready presentation. The PowerPoint slides are updated to reflect the content and organization of the new edition of the text. Cengage Learning Testing, powered by Cognero®: Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero®, is a flexible online system that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content. You can create multiple test versions in an instant and deliver tests from your LMS in your classroom. CogLab CogLab Online is a series of virtual lab demonstrations designed to help students understand cognition through interactive participation in cognitive experiments. Students with instructors that adopt CogLab also receive access to more than 50 online CogLab experiments that they can run themselves, then compare their data to the class average and to the results of the original experiments from the literature. To view a demo, visit coglab.cengage. com. MindTap MindTap® Psychology: MindTap® for Cognitive Psychology, 5th edition, is the digital learning solution that helps instructors engage and transform today's students into critical thinkers. Through paths of dynamic assignments and applications that you can personalize, realtime course analytics, and an accessible reader, MindTap helps you turn cookie cutter into cutting edge, apathy into engagement, and memorizers into higher-level thinkers. As an instructor using MindTap, you have at your fingertips the right content and unique set of tools curated specifically for your course, all in an interface designed to improve workflow and save time when planning lessons and course structure. The control to build and personalize your course is all yours, focusing on the most relevant material while also lowering costs for your students. Stay connected and informed in your course through real-time student tracking that provides the opportunity to adjust the course as needed based on analytics of interactivity in the course. Animated and experiential demonstrations are available in the MindTap. The purpose of these activities is to extend the students' experience beyond simply reading a description of an experiment, a principle, or a phenomenon, by giving them the opportunity to experience these things more fully and actively. This is achieved in a number of ways. Students may observe something unfolding on the screen or respond in some way, such as participating in a mini-experiment.  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 28  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Preface to Students A  s you begin reading this book, you probably have some ideas about how the mind works from things you have read, from other media, and from your own experiences. In this book, you will learn what we actually do and do not know about the mind, as determined from the results of controlled scientific research. Thus, if you thought that there is a system called "short-term memory" that can hold information for short periods of time, then you are right; when you read the chapters on memory, you will learn more about this system and how it interacts with other parts of your memory system. If you thought that some people can accurately remember things that happened to them as very young infants, you will see that there is a good chance that these reports are inaccurate. In fact, you may be surprised to learn that even more recent memories that seem extremely clear and vivid may not be entirely accurate due to basic characteristics of the way the memory system works. But what you will learn from this book goes much deeper than simply adding more accurate information to what you already know about the mind. You will learn that there is much more going on in your mind than you are conscious of. You are aware of experiences such as seeing something, remembering a past event, or thinking about how to solve a problem—but behind each of these experiences are a myriad of complex and largely invisible processes. Reading this book will help you appreciate some of the "behind the scenes" activity in your mind that is responsible for everyday experiences such as perceiving, remembering, and thinking. Another thing you will become aware of as you read this book is that there are many practical connections between the results of cognitive psychology research and everyday life. You will see examples of these connections throughout the book. For now, I want to focus on one especially important connection—what research in cognitive psychology can contribute to improving your studying. This discussion appears on pages 199–202 of Chapter 7, but you might want to look at this material now, rather than waiting until later in the course. I invite you to also consider the following two principles, which are designed to help you get more out of this book.  Principle 1: It is important to know what you know. Professors often hear students lament, "I came to the lecture, read the chapters a number of times, and still didn't do well on the exam." Sometimes this statement is followed by ". . . and when I walked out of the exam, I thought I had done pretty well." If this is something that you have experienced, the problem may be that you didn't have a good awareness of what you knew about the material and what you didn't know. If you think you know the material but actually don't, you might stop studying or might continue studying in an ineffective way, with the net result being a poor understanding of the material and an inability to remember it accurately, come exam time. Thus, it is important to test yourself on the material you have read by writing or saying the answers to the Test Yourself questions in the chapter.  Principle 2: Don't mistake ease and familiarity for knowing. One of the main reasons that students may think they know the material, even when they don't, is that they mistake familiarity for understanding. Here is how it works: You read the chapter once, perhaps highlighting as you go. Then later, you read the chapter again, perhaps focusing on the highlighted material. As you read it over, the material is familiar because you remember it from before, and this familiarity might lead you to think, "Okay, I know that." The problem is that this feeling of familiarity is not necessarily equivalent to  xxix Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 29  4/18/18 6:55 PM  xxx  Preface to Students knowing the material and may be of no help when you have to come up with an answer on the exam. In fact, familiarity can often lead to errors on multiple-choice exams because you might pick a choice that looks familiar, only to find out later that although it was something you had read, it wasn't really the best answer to the question. This brings us back again to the idea of testing yourself. One finding of cognitive psychology research is that the very act of trying to answer a question increases the chances that you will be able to answer it when you try again later. Another related finding is that testing yourself on the material is a more effective way of learning it than simply rereading the material. The reason testing yourself works is that generating material is a more effective way of getting information into memory than simply reviewing it. Thus, you may find it effective to test yourself before rereading the chapter or going over your highlighted text. Whichever study tactic you find works best for you, keep in mind that an effective strategy is to rest (take a break or study something else) before studying more and then retesting yourself. Research has shown that memory is better when studying is spaced out over time, rather than being done all at once. Repeating this process a number of times— testing yourself, checking back to see whether you were right, waiting, testing yourself again, and so on—is a more effective way of learning the material than simply looking at it and getting that warm, fuzzy feeling of familiarity, which may not translate into actually knowing the material when you are faced with questions about it on the exam. I hope you will find this book to be clear and interesting and that you will sometimes be fascinated or perhaps even surprised by some of the things you read. I also hope that your introduction to cognitive psychology extends beyond just "learning the material." Cognitive psychology is endlessly interesting because it is about one of the most fascinating of all topics—the human mind. Thus, once your course is over, I hope you will take away an appreciation for what cognitive psychologists have discovered about the mind and what still remains to be learned. I also hope that you will become a more critical consumer of information about the mind that you may encounter on the Internet or in movies, magazines, or other media.  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 30  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Acknowledgments T  he starting point for a textbook like this one is an author who has an idea for a book, but other people soon become part of the process. Writing is guided by feedback from editors and reviewers on writing and content. When the manuscript is completed, the production process begins, and a new group of people take over to turn the manuscript into a book. This means that this book has been a group effort and that I had lots of help, both during the process of writing and after submitting the final manuscript. I would therefore like to thank the following people for their extraordinary efforts in support of this book. ➤➤ ERIN SCHNAIR, product manager. Thank you, Erin, for supporting the produc-  tion of this book in both print and digital formats, and for providing the resources I needed to create the best book possible.  ➤➤ SHANNON LEMAY-FINN, developmental editor. Writing a book is a solitary  pursuit, but I was fortunate enough to have Shannon comment on everything I wrote. Thank you, Shannon, for focusing your uncanny critical radar on my writing, and for letting me know when my writing didn't make sense, or parse well, or had left out an essential part of the story. Thank you also, for appreciating my writing and for being interested in cognitive psychology. Working with you is one of the things that makes writing these books worthwhile.  ➤➤ LINDA MAN, senior content developer. Thanks, Linda, for being on top of this  book from the early planning stages all the way through to the end. You handled everything from reviewing photos to managing MindTap activities, plus the countless other details involved in getting the manuscript ready for production, and creating the final book. Thank you for taking care of everything with such efficiency and grace, and for being such a joy to work with.  ➤➤ LYNN LUSTBERG, senior project manager, MPS Limited. Producing a book is a  complex process that involves close attention to detail, while meeting deadlines. Thank you, Lynn, for shepherding my book through the production process, and especially for dealing with all of my corrections and suggestions as the process of production progressed.  ➤➤ VERNON BOES, art director. Thanks, yet again, Vernon, for coordinating the  design and art program. It's been fun working with you, all these years.  ➤➤ CHERYL CARRINGTON. Thank you, Cheryl, for your beautiful text and cover  designs.  I also thank the following people whose work was essential to this project: Ruth Sakata Corley, senior content project manager; Chris Sabooni, copy editor; Jan Trout, ilustrations; and Carly Belcher, intellectual property manager. In addition to the help I received from the above people on the editorial and production side, I received a great deal of help from teachers and researchers who gave me feedback on what I wrote and made suggestions regarding new work in the field. I thank the following people for their help.  xxxi Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 31  4/18/18 6:55 PM  xxxii  Acknowledgments  Specialist Reviewers A number of experts were commissioned to read one of the chapters from the fourth edition and provide suggestions on updating the content for the fifth edition. What made many of these reviews especially helpful were suggestions that combined the reviewers' expertise with their experience of presenting the material in their classes. CHAPTER 4  Attention Michael Hout New Mexico State University  CHAPTER 5  Short-Term and Working Memory Brad Wyble Daryl Fougnie Penn State University New York University  CHAPTER 6  Long-Term Memory: Structure Megan Papesh Louisiana State University  CHAPTER 7  Long-Term Memory: Encoding and Retrieval Andrew Yonelinas Barbara Knowlton University of California, Davis University of California, Los Angeles  CHAPTER 8  Everyday Memory and Memory Errors Jason Chan Jennifer Talarico Iowa State University Lafayette College  CHAPTER 9  Conceptual Knowledge Brad Mahon University of Rochester  CHAPTER 10  Visual Imagery Frank Tong Vanderbilt University  CHAPTER 11  Language Bob Slevc University of Maryland  Jamie Reily Temple University  Adrian Staub University of Massachusetts  Tessa Warren University of Pittsburgh CHAPTER 12  Problem Solving Evangelia Chrysikou University of Kansas  CHAPTER 13  Judgment, Decisions, and Reasoning Sandra Schneider University of South Florida  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 32  4/19/18 6:11 PM  Acknowledgments   xxxiii  In addition, the following reviewers read parts of chapters to check for accuracy in their areas of expertise, or took the time to answer questions that I posed. Jessica Andrews-Hanna University of Arizona  Ying-Hui Chou University of Arizona  Marc Coutanche University of Pittsburgh  Jack Gallant University of California Berkeley  Måns Holgersson Kristianstad University, Sweden  Almut Hupbach Lehigh University  Alexender Huth University of California, Berkeley  Marcia Johnson Yale University  Matthew Johnson University of Nebraska, Lincoln  Lo Tamborini Kristianstad University, Sweden  Timothy Verstynen Carnegie-Mellon University I also thank the following people, who donated photographs and research records for illustrations that are new to this edition. Ying-Hui Chou University of Arizona  Jack Gallant University of California, Berkeley  Alex Huth University of California, Berkeley  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_fm_ptg01.indd 33  4/18/18 6:55 PM  Bruce Goldstein  These floating umbrellas, besides being pretty, symbolize many of the cognitive processes we will be describing in this book: Perception (Seeing colors and shapes); Attention (Where your eyes move when observing this scene); Memory (Seeing umbrellas might stimulate memories); Knowledge (You know what umbrellas are used for, and that they usually don't float); and Problem Solving (Floating umbrellas! What's that all about?). What unfolds, as you read this book, is a fascinating story about how the mind works to create these cognitions and more. This chapter begins by describing the history of cognitive psychology.  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_ch01_ptg01.indd 2  4/18/18 4:23 PM  1  Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology: Studying the Mind What Is the Mind? Studying the Mind: Early Work in Cognitive Psychology Donders's Pioneering Experiment: How Long Does It Take to Make a Decision? Wundt's Psychology Laboratory: Structuralism and Analytic Introspection Ebbinghaus's Memory Experiment: What Is the Time Course of Forgetting? William James's Principles of Psychology  Abandoning the Study of the Mind Watson Founds Behaviorism Skinner's Operant Conditioning  Flow Diagrams for Computers Flow Diagrams for the Mind Conferences on Artificial Intelligence and Information Theory The Cognitive "Revolution" Took a While  The Evolution of Cognitive Psychology What Neisser Wrote Studying Higher Mental Processes Studying the Physiology of Cognition New Perspectives on Behavior  Something to Consider: Learning from This Book ➤➤ TEST YOURSELF 1.1  Setting the Stage for the Reemergence of the Mind in Psychology  The Rebirth of the Study of the Mind Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts Introduction of the Digital Computer  CHAPTER SUMMARY THINK ABOUT IT KEY TERMS COGLAB EXPERIMENTS  3 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_ch01_ptg01.indd 3  4/18/18 4:23 PM  SOME QUESTIONS WE WILL CONSIDER ◗◗ How is cognitive psychology relevant to everyday experience? (5)  I  t's been 16 years since the accident. Sam, lying in the long-term care facility, has been in a coma ever since. Observing Sam, who shows no signs of awareness or ability to commu-  nicate, it seems reasonable to conclude that "there's nobody in there." But is that true? Does the fact that Sam hasn't moved or responded to stimulation mean he doesn't have a mind? Is there any probability that his eyes, which appear to be vacantly staring into space, could  ◗◗ How is it possible to study the inner workings of the mind when we can't really see the mind directly? (7)  be perceiving, and that these perceptions might be accompanied by thoughts?  ◗◗ What was the cognitive revolution? (13)  activity throughout his brain, and then showed him an 8-minute excerpt from an Alfred  These are the questions Lorina Naci and coworkers (2014, 2015) were asking when they placed Sam in a brain scanner that measured increases and decreases in electrical Hitchcock television program called "Bang. You're Dead." At the beginning, a 5-year-old boy is playing with his toy gun. But then he discovers a real gun and some bullets in his uncle's suitcase. The boy loads one bullet into the gun, spins the chamber that contains the single bullet, and shoves the weapon into his toy-gun holster. As the boy roams the neighborhood, pointing the gun at a number of different people, the tension mounts. He points the gun at someone! He pulls the trigger! The gun doesn't fire because the single bullet isn't in the firing chamber. But thoughts such as "Will the gun go off ?" and "Will someone be killed?" are racing through the viewers' minds, knowing that the boy's "play" could, at any moment, turn tragic. (There was a reason Hitchcock was called "the master of suspense.") In the last scene, back at the boy's house, the boy's father, realizing that he is pointing a real gun, lunges toward the boy. The gun fires! A mirror shatters. Luckily, no one is hurt. The boy's father grabs the gun, and the audience breathes a sigh of relief. When this film was shown to healthy participants in the scanner, their brain activity increased and decreased at the same time for all of the participants, with changes in brain activity being linked to what was happening in the movie. Activity was highest at suspenseful moments in the film, such as when the child was loading the gun or pointing it at someone. So the viewer's brains weren't just responding to the images on the screen; their brain activity was being driven both by the images and by the movie's plot. And— here's the important point—to understand the plot, it is necessary to understand things that weren't specifically presented in the movie, like "guns are dangerous when loaded," "guns can kill people," and "a 5-year-old boy may not be aware that he could accidentally kill someone." So, how did Sam's brain respond to the movie? Amazingly, his response was the same as the healthy participants' responses: brain activity increased during periods of tension and decreased when danger wasn't imminent. This indicates that Sam was not only seeing the images and hearing the soundtrack, but that he was reacting to the movie's plot! His brain activity therefore indicated that Sam was consciously aware;  4  that "someone was in there." Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_ch01_ptg01.indd 4  4/19/18 6:14 PM  Cognitive Psychology : Studying the Mind   5  This story about Sam, who appears to have a mental life despite appearances to the contrary, has an important message as we embark on the adventure of understanding the mind. Perhaps the most important message is that the mind is hidden from view. Sam is an extreme case because he can't move or talk, but you will see that the "normal" mind also holds many secrets. Just as we can't know exactly what Sam is experiencing, we don't know exactly what other people are experiencing, even though they are able to tell us about their thoughts and observations. And although you may be aware of your own thoughts and observations, you are unaware of most of what's happening in your mind. This means that as you understand what you are reading right now, there are hidden processes operating within your mind, beneath your awareness, that make this understanding possible. As you read this book, you will see how research has revealed many of these secret aspects of the mind's operation. This is no trivial thing, because your mind not only makes it possible for you to read this text and understand the plots of movies, but it is responsible for who you are and what you do. It creates your thoughts, perceptions, desires, emotions, memories, language, and physical actions. It guides your decision making and problem solving. It has been compared to a computer, although your brain outperforms your smartphone, laptop, or even a powerful supercomputer on many tasks. And, of course, your mind does something else that computers can't even dream of (if only they could dream!): it creates your consciousness of what's out there, what's going on with your body, and, simply, what it's like to be you! In this book, we will be describing what the mind is, what it does, and how it does it. The first step in doing this is to look at some of the things the mind does. As we do this, we will see that the mind is multifaceted, involving multiple functions and mechanisms. We begin this chapter by looking at the multifaceted nature of the mind and then describing some of the history behind the field of cognitive psychology.  Cognitive Psychology: Studying the Mind You may have noticed that we have been using the term mind without precisely defining it. As we will see, mind, like other concepts in psychology such as intelligence or emotion, can be thought of in a number of different ways.  What Is the Mind? One way to approach the question "What is the mind?" is to consider how "mind" is used in everyday conversation. Here are a few examples: 1. "He was able to call to mind what he was doing on the day of the accident." (The mind as involved in memory) 2. "If you put your mind to it, I'm sure you can solve that math problem." (The mind as problem-solver) 3. "I haven't made up my mind yet" or "I'm of two minds about this." (The mind as used to make decisions or consider possibilities) 4. "He is of sound mind and body" or "When he talks about his encounter with aliens, it sounds like he is out of his mind." (A healthy mind being associated with normal functioning, a nonfunctioning mind with abnormal functioning) 5. "A mind is a terrible thing to waste." (The mind as valuable, something that should be used) 6. "He has a brilliant mind." (Used to describe people who are particularly intelligent or creative) These statements tell us some important things about what the mind is. Statements 1, 2, and 3, which highlight the mind's role in memory, problem solving, and making decisions, Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_ch01_ptg01.indd 5  4/18/18 4:23 PM  6  CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology are related to the following definition of the mind: The mind creates and controls mental functions such as perception, attention, memory, emotions, language, deciding, thinking, and reasoning. This definition reflects the mind's central role in determining our various mental abilities, which are reflected in the chapter titles in this book. Another definition, which focuses on how the mind operates, is this: The mind is a system that creates representations of the world so that we can act within it to achieve our goals. This definition reflects the mind's importance for functioning and survival, and also provides the beginnings of a description of how the mind achieves these ends. The idea of creating representations is something we will return to throughout this book. These two definitions of the mind are not incompatible. The first one indicates different types of cognition—the mental processes, such as perception, attention, and memory, which is what the mind creates. The second definition indicates something about how the mind operates (it creates representations) and its function (it enables us to act and to achieve goals). It is no coincidence that all of the cognitions in the first definition play important roles in acting to achieve goals. Statements 4, 5, and 6 emphasize the mind's importance for normal functioning, and the amazing abilities of the mind. The mind is something to be used, and the products of some people's minds are considered extraordinary. But one of the messages of this book is that the idea that the mind is amazing is not reserved for "extraordinary" minds, because even the most "routine" things—recognizing a person, having a conversation, or deciding what courses to take next semester—become amazing in themselves when we consider the properties of the mind that enable us to achieve these familiar activities. Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes, which includes determining the characteristics and properties of the mind and how it operates. Our goals in the rest of this chapter are to describe how the field of cognitive psychology evolved from its early beginnings to where it is today, and to begin describing how cognitive psychologists approach the scientific study of the mind.  Studying the Mind: Early Work in Cognitive Psychology In the 1800s, ideas about the mind were dominated by the belief that it is not possible to study the mind. One reason given for this belief was that it is not possible for the mind to study itself, but there were other reasons as well, including the idea that the properties of the mind simply cannot be measured. Nonetheless, some researchers defied the common wisdom and decided to study the mind anyway. One of these people was the Dutch physiologist Franciscus Donders, who in 1868, 11 years before the founding of the first laboratory of scientific psychology, did one of the first experiments that today would be called a cognitive psychology experiment. (It is important to note that the term cognitive psychology was not coined until 1967, but the early experiments we are going to describe qualify as cognitive psychology experiments.) Donders's Pioneering Experiment: How Long Does It Take to Make a Decision? Donders was interested in determining how long it takes for a person to make a decision. He determined this by measuring reaction time—how long it takes to respond to presentation of a stimulus. He used two measures of reaction time. He measured simple reaction time by asking his participants to push a button as rapidly as possible when they saw a light go on (Figure 1.1a). He measured choice reaction time by using two lights and asking his participants to push the left button when they saw the left light go on and the right button when they saw the right light go on (Figure 1.1b). The steps that occur in the simple reaction time task are shown in Figure 1.2a. Presenting the stimulus (the light flashes) causes a mental response (perceiving the light), which leads to a behavioral response (pushing the button). The reaction time (dashed line) is the time between the presentation of the stimulus and the behavioral response. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_ch01_ptg01.indd 6  4/18/18 4:23 PM  Cognitive Psychology : Studying the Mind   7  (a) Press J when light goes on.  (b) Press J for left light, K for right.  ➤ Figure 1.1 A modern version of Donders's (1868) reaction time experiment: (a) the simple reaction time task and (b) the choice reaction time task. In the simple reaction time task, the participant pushes the J key when the light goes on. In the choice reaction time task, the participant pushes the J key if the left light goes on and the K key if the right light goes on. The purpose of Donders's experiment was to determine how much time it took to decide which key to press in the choice reaction time task.  But remember that Donders was interested in determining how long it took for a person to make a decision. The choice reaction time task added decisions by requiring participants to first decide whether the left or right light was illuminated and then which button to push. The diagram for this task, in Figure 1.2b, changes the mental response to "Perceive left light" and "Decide which button to push." Donders reasoned that the difference in reaction time between the simple and choice conditions would indicate how long it took to make the decision that led to pushing the correct button. Because the choice reaction time took one-tenth of a second longer than simple reaction time, Donders concluded that the decision-making process took one-tenth of a second. Donders's experiment is important, both because it was one of the first cognitive psychology experiments and because it illustrates something extremely significant about studying the mind: Mental responses (perceiving the light and deciding which button to push, in this example) cannot be measured directly, but must be inLight flashes Left light flashes ferred from behavior. We can see why this is so by noting the dashed lines in Figure 1.2. These lines indicate that when Donders measured reaction time, he was measuring the relationship between presentation of the stimulus and the participant's "Perceive left light" and Reaction "Perceive the light" time response. He did not measure mental responses "Decide which button to push" directly, but inferred how long they took from the reaction times. The fact that mental responses cannot be measured directly, but must be inferred from observing behavior, is a principle that holds not only for Donders's experiment but for all research Press left button Press button in cognitive psychology. (a) (b) Wundt's Psychology Laboratory: Structuralism and Analytic Introspection In 1879, 11 years after Donders's reaction time experiment, Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory of scientific psychology at the University of Leipzig  Stimulus  Mental response  Behavioral response  ➤ Figure 1.2 Sequence of events between presentation of the stimulus and the behavioral response in Donders's experiments: (a) simple reaction time task and (b) choice reaction time task. The dashed line indicates that Donders measured reaction time—the time between presentation of the light and the participant's response.  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_ch01_ptg01.indd 7  4/18/18 4:23 PM  8  CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology in Germany. Wundt's approach, which dominated psychology in the late 1800s and early 1900s, was called structuralism. According to structuralism, our overall experience is determined by combining basic elements of experience the structuralists called sensations. Thus, just as chemistry developed a periodic table of the elements, which combine to create molecules, Wundt wanted to create a "periodic table of the mind," which would include all of the basic sensations involved in creating experience. Wundt thought he could achieve this scientific description of the components of experience by using analytic introspection, a technique in which trained participants described their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli. Analytic introspection required extensive training because the participants' goal was to describe their experience in terms of elementary mental elements. For example, in one experiment, Wundt asked participants to describe their experience of hearing a five-note chord played on the piano. One of the questions Wundt hoped to answer was whether his participants were able to hear each of the individual notes that made up the chord. As we will see when we consider perception in Chapter 3, structuralism was not a fruitful approach and so was abandoned in the early 1900s. Nonetheless, Wundt made a substantial contribution to psychology by his commitment to studying behavior and the mind under controlled conditions. In addition, he trained many PhDs who established psychology departments at other universities, including many in the United States.  Time (sec)  Ebbinghaus's Memory Experiment: What Is the Time Course of Forgetting? Meanwhile, 120 miles from Leipzig, at the University of Berlin, German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913) was using another approach to measuring the properties of the mind. Ebbinghaus was interested in determining the nature of memory and forgetting—specifically, how rapidly information that is learned is lost over time. Rather than using Wundt's method of analytic introspection, Ebbinghaus used a quantitative method for measuring memory. Using himself as the participant, he repeated lists of 13 nonsense syllables such as DAX, QEH, LUH, and ZIF to himself one at a time at a constant rate. He used nonsense syllables so that his memory would not be influenced by the meaning of a particular word. Ebbinghaus determined how long it took to learn a list for the first time. He then waited for a specific amount of time (the delay) and then determined how long it took to relearn the list. Because forgetting had occurred during the delay, Ebbinghaus made errors when he first tried to remember the list. But because he had retained something from his original learning, he relearned the list Savings = 600 Savings = 350 Savings = 270 more rapidly than when he had learned it for the first time. Ebbinghaus used a measure called savings, calculated as 1,000 follows, to determine how much was forgotten after a par730 650 ticular delay: Savings 5 (Original time to learn the list) 2 400 (Time to relearn the list after the delay). Thus, if it took 1,000 seconds to learn the list the first time and 400 seconds to re0 19 0 1 0 6 learn the list after the delay, the savings would be 1,000 2 minutes day days 400 5 600 seconds. Figure 1.3, which represents original (a) (b) (c) learning and relearning after three different delays, shows that longer delays result in smaller savings. ➤ Figure 1.3 Calculating the savings score in Ebbinghaus's According to Ebbinghaus, this reduction in savings proexperiment. In this example, it took 1,000 seconds to learn the list vided a measure of forgetting, with smaller savings meanof nonsense syllables for the first time. This is indicated by the lines ing more forgetting. Thus, the plot of percent savings at 0. The time needed to relearn the list at delays of (a) 19 minutes, versus time in Figure 1.4, called a savings curve, shows (b) 1 day, and (c) 6 days are indicated by the line to the right of that memory drops rapidly for the first 2 days after the the 0 line. The red arrows indicate the savings score for each delay. initial learning and then levels off. This curve was important Notice that savings decrease for longer delays. This decrease in because it demonstrated that memory could be quantified and savings provides a measure of forgetting. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_ch01_ptg01.indd 8  4/18/18 4:23 PM  Cognitive Psychology : Studying the Mind   9  that functions like the savings curve could be used to describe a property of the mind—in this case, the ability to retain information. Notice that although Ebbinghaus's savings method was very different from Donders's reaction time method, both measured behavior to determine a property of the mind.  60 50  1 hour Percent savings  William James's Principles of Psychology William James, one of the early American psychologists (although not a student of Wundt's), taught Harvard's first psychology course and made significant observations about the mind in his textbook, Principles of Psychology (1890). James's observations were based not on the results of experiments but on observations about the operation of his own mind. One of the best known of James's observations is the following, on the nature of attention: Millions of items . . . are present to my senses which never properly enter my experience. Why? Because they have no interest for me. My experience is what I agree to attend to. . . . Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. . . . It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others.  19 minutes  40  8.75 hours  30  1 day 2 days 31 days  6 days  20 10 0  0  Time  ➤ Figure 1.4 Ebbinghaus's savings curve. Ebbinghaus considered the percent savings to be a measure of the amount remembered, so he plotted this versus the time between initial learning and testing. The decrease in savings (remembering) with increasing delays indicates that forgetting occurs rapidly over the first 2 days and then occurs more slowly after that.  The observation that paying attention to one thing involves withdrawing from other things still rings true today and has been the topic of many modern studies of attention. As impressive as the accuracy of James's (Source: Based on data from Ebbinghaus, 1885/1913.) observations, so too was the range of cognitive topics he considered, which included thinking, consciousness, attention, memory, perception, imagination, and reasoning. The founding of the first laboratory of psychology by Wundt, the quantitative experiments of Donders and Ebbinghaus, and the perceptive observations of James provided what seemed to be a promising start to the study of the mind (Table 1.1). However, research on the mind was soon to be curtailed, largely because of events early in the 20th century that shifted the focus of psychology away from the study of the mind and mental processes. One of the major forces that caused psychology to reject the study of mental processes was a negative reaction to Wundt's technique of analytic introspection. TABLE 1.1 Early Pioneers in Cognitive Psychology Person  Procedure  Results and Conclusions  Contribution  Donders (1868)  Simple reaction time versus choice reaction time  Choice reaction time takes 1/10 seconds longer; therefore, it takes 1/10 second to make a decision  First cognitive psychology experiment  Wundt (1879)  Analytic introspection  No reliable results  Established the first laboratory of scientific psychology  Ebbinghaus (1885)  Savings method to measure forgetting  Forgetting occurs rapidly in the first 1 to 2 days after original learning  Quantitative measurement of mental processes  James (1890)  No experiments; reported observations of his own experience  Descriptions of a wide range of experiences  First psychology textbook; some of his observations are still valid today  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_ch01_ptg01.indd 9  4/18/18 4:23 PM  10  CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology  Abandoning the Study of the Mind Many early departments of psychology conducted research in the tradition of Wundt's laboratory, using analytic introspection to analyze mental processes. This emphasis on studying the mind was to change, however, because of the efforts of John Watson, who received his PhD in psychology in 1904 from the University of Chicago.  Watson Founds Behaviorism The story of how John Watson founded an approach to psychology called behaviorism is well known to introductory psychology students. We will briefly review it here because of its importance to the history of cognitive psychology. As a graduate student at the University of Chicago, Watson became dissatisfied with the method of analytic introspection. His problems with this method were (1) it produced extremely variable results from person to person, and (2) these results were difficult to verify because they were interpreted in terms of invisible inner mental processes. In response to what he perceived to be deficiencies in analytic introspection, Watson proposed a new approach called behaviorism. One of Watson's papers, "Psychology As the Behaviorist Views It," set forth the goals of this approach to psychology in this famous quote: Psychology as the Behaviorist sees it is a purely objective, experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. . . . What we need to do is start work upon psychology making behavior, not consciousness, the objective point of our attack. (Watson, 1913, pp. 158, 176; emphasis added)  This passage makes two key points: (1) Watson rejects introspection as a method, and (2) observable behavior, not consciousness (which would involve unobservable processes such as thinking, emotions, and reasoning), is the main topic of study. In other words, Watson wanted to restrict psychology to behavioral data, such as Donders's reaction times, and rejected the idea of going beyond those data to draw conclusions about unobservable mental events. Watson eliminated the mind as a topic for investigation by proclaiming that "psychology . . . need no longer delude itself into thinking that it is making mental states the object of observation" (p. 163). Watson's goal was to replace the mind as a topic of study in psychology with the study of directly observable behavior. As behaviorism became the dominant force in American psychology, psychologists' attention shifted from asking "What does behavior tell us about the mind?" to "What is the relation between stimuli in the environment and behavior?" Watson's most famous experiment was the "Little Albert" experiment, in which Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) subjected Albert, a 9-month-old-boy, to a loud noise every time a rat (which Albert had originally liked) came close to the child. After a few pairings of the noise with the rat, Albert reacted to the rat by crawling away as rapidly as possible. Watson's ideas are associated with classical conditioning—how pairing one stimulus (such as the loud noise presented to Albert) with another, previously neutral stimulus (such as the rat) causes changes in the response to the neutral stimulus. Watson's inspiration for his experiment was Ivan Pavlov's research, begun in the 1890s, that demonstrated classical conditioning in dogs. In these experiments (Figure 1.5), Pavlov's pairing of food (which made the dog salivate) with a bell (the initially neutral stimulus) caused the dog to salivate to the sound of the bell (Pavlov, 1927). Watson used classical conditioning to argue that behavior can be analyzed without any reference to the mind. For Watson, what was going on inside Albert's head (or inside Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_ch01_ptg01.indd 10  4/18/18 4:23 PM  Abandoning the Study of the Mind   11  Pavlov's dog's head!), either physiologically or mentally, was irrelevant. He cared only about how pairing one stimulus with another affected behavior.  Skinner's Operant Conditioning In the midst of behaviorism's dominance of American psychology, B. F. Skinner, who received his PhD from Harvard in 1931, provided another tool for studying the relationship between stimulus and response, which ensured that this approach would dominate psychology for decades to come. Skinner introduced operant conditioning, which focused on how behavior is strengthened ➤ Figure 1.5 In Pavlov's famous experiment, he paired ringing a bell with presentation of food. Initially, presentation of the food caused the dog by the presentation of positive reinforcers, such as to salivate, but after a number of pairings of bell and food, the bell alone food or social approval (or withdrawal of negative caused salivation. This principle of learning by pairing, which came to reinforcers, such as a shock or social rejection). be called classical conditioning, was the basis of Watson's "Little Albert" For example, Skinner showed that reinforcing experiment. a rat with food for pressing a bar maintained or increased the rat's rate of bar pressing. Like Watson, Skinner was not interested in what was happening in the mind, but focused solely on determining how behavior was controlled by stimuli (Skinner, 1938). The idea that behavior can be understood by studying stimulus–response relationships influenced an entire generation of psychologists and dominated psychology in the United States from the 1940s through the 1960s. Psychologists applied the techniques of classical and operant conditioning to classroom teaching, treating psychological disorders, and testing the effects of drugs on animals. Figure 1.6 is a time line showing the initial studies of the mind and the rise of behaviorism. But even as behaviorism was dominating psychology, events were occurring that were to lead to the rebirth of the study of the mind.  Setting the Stage for the Reemergence of the Mind in Psychology Although behaviorism dominated American psychology for many decades, some researchers were not toeing the strict behaviorist line. One of these researchers was Edward Chace Tolman. Tolman, who from 1918 to 1954 was at the University of California at Berkeley, called himself a behaviorist because his focus was on measuring behavior. But in reality, he was one of the early cognitive psychologists, because he used behavior to infer mental processes.  1868  Donders: Reaction time  1879  Wundt: Scientific psychology laboratory  1885  Ebbinghaus: Forgetting curve  1890  James: Principles of Psychology  1913  Watson: Behaviorism  1938  Skinner: Operant conditioning  ➤ Figure 1.6 Time line showing early experiments studying the mind in the 1800s and the rise of behaviorism in the 1900s. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_ch01_ptg01.indd 11  4/18/18 4:23 PM  12  CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology C  C  C  B D  D  B D  B  Food  Food  A  A  A  (a) Explore maze  (b) Turn right for food  (c) Turn left for food  ➤ Figure 1.7 Maze used by Tolman. (a) The rat initially explores the maze. (b) The rat learns to turn right to obtain food at B when it starts at A. (c) When placed at C, the rat turns left to reach the food at B. In this experiment, precautions are taken to prevent the rat from knowing where the food is based on cues such as smell.  In one of his experiments, Tolman (1938) placed a rat in a maze like the one in  Figure 1.7. Initially, the rat explored the maze, running up and down each of the alleys (Figure 1.7a). After this initial period of exploration, the rat was placed at point A and  food was placed at point B, and the rat quickly learned to turn right at the intersection to obtain the food. This is exactly what the behaviorists would predict, because turning right was rewarded with food (Figure 1.7b). However, when Tolman (after taking precautions to be sure the rat couldn't determine the location of the food based on smell) placed the rat at point C, something interesting happened. The rat turned left at the intersection to reach the food at point B (Figure 1.7c). Tolman's explanation of this result was that when the rat initially experienced the maze it was developing a cognitive map—a conception within the rat's mind of the maze's layout (Tolman, 1948). Thus, even though the rat had previously been rewarded for turning right, its mental map indicated that when starting from the new location it needed to turn left to reach the food. Tolman's use of the word cognitive, and the idea that something other than stimulus–response connections might be occurring in the rat's mind, placed Tolman outside of mainstream behaviorism. Other researchers were aware of Tolman's work, but for most American psychologists in the 1940s, the use of the term cognitive was difficult to accept because it violated the behaviorists' idea that internal processes, such as thinking or maps in the head, were not acceptable topics to study. It wasn't until about a decade after Tolman introduced the idea of cognitive maps that developments occurred that led to a resurgence of the mind in psychology. Ironically, one of these developments was the publication, in 1957, of a book by B. F. Skinner titled Verbal Behavior. In his book, Skinner argued that children learn language through operant conditioning. According to this idea, children imitate speech that they hear, and repeat correct speech because it is rewarded. But in 1959, Noam Chomsky, a linguist from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, published a scathing review of Skinner's book, in which he pointed out that children say many sentences that have never been rewarded by parents ("I hate you, Mommy," for example), and that during the normal course of language development, they go through a stage in which they use incorrect grammar, such as "the boy hitted the ball," even though this incorrect grammar may never have been reinforced. Chomsky saw language development as being determined not by imitation or reinforcement, but by an inborn biological program that holds across cultures. Chomsky's idea that language is a product of the way the mind is constructed, rather than a result of Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_ch01_ptg01.indd 12  4/18/18 4:23 PM  The Rebirth of the Study of the Mind   13  reinforcement, led psychologists to reconsider the idea that language and other complex behaviors, such as problem solving and reasoning, can be explained by operant conditioning. Instead, they began to realize that to understand complex cognitive behaviors, it is necessary not only to measure observable behavior but also to consider what this behavior tells us about how the mind works.  The Rebirth of the Study of the Mind The decade of the 1950s is generally recognized as the beginning of the cognitive revolution—a shift in psychology from the behaviorist's focus on stimulus–response relationships to an approach whose main thrust was to understand the operation of the mind. Even before Chomsky's critique of Skinner's book, other events were happening that signaled a shift away from focusing only on behavior and toward studying how the mind operates. But before we describe the events that began the cognitive revolution, let's consider the following question: What is a revolution—and specifically a scientific revolution? One answer to this question can be found in philosopher Thomas Kuhn's (1962) book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.  Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts Kuhn defined a scientific revolution as a shift from one paradigm to another, where a paradigm is a system of ideas that dominate science at a particular time (Dyson, 2012). A scientific revolution, therefore, involves a paradigm shift. An example of a paradigm shift in science is the shift that occurred in physics in the beginning of the 20th century, with the introduction of the theory of relativity and quantum theory. Before the 20th century, classical physics, founded by Isaac Newton (1642–1727), had made great progress in describing things like how objects are affected by forces (Newton's laws of motion) and the nature of electrical fields (Maxwell's laws, which described electromagnetism). The principles of classical physics did not, however, adequately describe subatomic phenomena and the relation between time and motion. For example, classical physics conceived of the flow of time as an absolute constant, which was the same for everyone. But in 1905, Albert Einstein, a young clerk in the Bern, Switzerland, patent office, published his theory of relativity, which proposed that the measurement of space and time are affected by an observer's motion, so clocks run slower when approaching the speed of light. He also proposed that there is an equivalence of mass and energy, as expressed in his famous equation E = mc2 (energy equals mass times the speed of light squared). Einstein's relativity theory, along with the newly introduced quantum theory, which explained the behavior of subatomic particles, marked the beginning of modern physics. Just as the paradigm shift from classical physics to modern physics provided a new way of looking at the physical world, the paradigm shift from behaviorism to the cognitive approach provided a new way to look at behavior. During the reign of behaviorism, behavior was considered an end in itself. Psychology was dominated by experiments studying how behavior is affected by rewards and punishments. Some valuable discoveries resulted from this research, including psychological therapies called "behavioral therapies," which are still in use today. But the behaviorist paradigm did not allow any consideration of the mind's role in creating behavior, so in the 1950s the new cognitive paradigm began to emerge. We can't mark the beginning of this new paradigm by the publication of a single paper, like Einstein's (1905) proposal of relativity theory, but rather we can note a series of events, which added together culminated in a new way of studying psychology. One of these events was the introduction of a new technology that suggested a new way of describing the operation of the mind. That new technology was the digital computer. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  08271_ch01_ptg01.indd 13  4/19/18 6:14 PM  14  CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology  Introduction of the Digital Computer The first digital computers, developed in the late 1940s, were huge machines that took up entire buildings, but in 1954 IBM introduced a computer that was available to the general public. These computers were still extremely large compared to the laptops of today, but they found their way into university research laboratories, where they were used both to analyze data and, most important for our purposes, to suggest a new way of thinking about the mind. Flow Diagrams for Computers One of the characteristics of computers that captured the attention of psychologists in the 1950s was that they processed information in stages, as illustrated in Figure 1.8a. In this diagram, information is first received by an "input processor." It is then stored in a "memory unit" before it is processed by an "arithmetic unit," which then creates the computer's output. Using this stage approach as their inspiration, some psychologists proposed the information-processing approach to studying the mind—an approach that traces sequences of mental operations involved in cognition. According to the information-processing approach, the operation of the mind can be described as occurring in a number of stages. Applying this stage approach to the mind led psychologists to ask new questions and to frame their answers to these questions in new ways. One of the first experiments influenced by this new way of thinking about the mind involved studying how well people are able to focus their attention on some information when other information is being presented at the same time. Flow Diagrams for the Mind Beginning in the 1950s, a number of researchers became interested in describing how well the mind can deal with incoming information. One question they were interested in answering followed from William James's idea that when we decide to attend to one thing, we must withdraw from other things. Taking this idea as a starting point, British psychologist Colin Cherry (1953) presented participants with two auditory messages, one to the left ear a

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